Heat-killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced trained immunity elicits antitumor activity in PBMCs from colon cancer patients with unresponsiveness to anti-PD-1 in vitro
Trained immunity (TI) is a form of innate immune memory characterized by boosted innate immune responses to secondary heterologous challenges following an initial stimulus. Several inducers, including fungal β-glucan and the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, induce TI in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Although the potential of TI in colon cancer has been explored in murine models, its relevance in patients remains poorly understood.